History of translation in China

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In 138 BC, Emperor Wudi sent a minister named Zhang Qian 張騫 as an envoy to Dayuezhi 大月氏 to initiate transcontinental trade in the Silk Road as well as to create political protectorates by securing allies. Thirteen years later, he returned from the expedition and brought back valuable information about the region. This includes Buddhism, a religion that was very popular in some countries of Central and West Asia at the time.

(Picture generated from AI – Playground.) (Prompt: a vast landscape with elements of the ancient Silk Road, including distant mountains and a clear sky. The scene captures a moment of historical significance, blending the rich cultural heritage of the Western Han Empire with the spirit of exploration and diplomacy.)

Zhang Qian leaving for his expedition, depicted in the Mogao Caves mural.

The legend of Emperor Wudi worshipping “golden man” Buddha statues, depicted in the Mogao Caves mural.

A Sramana of Central India named Dharmaratna, or Zhu Falan 竺法蘭, arrived in China in 67. He collaborated with Kasyapa Matanga 迦葉摩騰 on the translation of the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters (Fo Shuo Si Shi Er Zhang Jing 《佛説四十二章經》), the first translation of a Buddhist sutra in China.

A Scythian monk named Zhi Lou Jia Chen 支婁迦讖, or Zhi Chen 支讖, or Lokakṣema, came to Luoyang in 147. He was engaged in the promotion of Buddhism while in China and translated Buddhist texts into Chinese. Between 184 and 189, he translated three sutras in 14 juan of Buddhist scripture: 10 juan of Bo Re Dao Xing Jing 《般若道行經》(Sutra for the Right Path to Wisdom), 2 juan of Bo Re San Mei Jing 《般若三昧經》 (Prajnaparamita Sutra), and 2 juan of Shou Leng Yan Jing 《首楞嚴經》(Suramgama Sutra).

Zhi Chen’s translation of Prajnaparamita Sutra《般若三昧經》. Picture from https://ed29.com/wiki/%E8%88%AC%E8%88%9F%E4%B8%89%E6%98%A7%E7%B6%93

Large-scale translation of Buddhist scriptures in China began in 147 AD (Eastern Han dynasty) with An Qing 安清, who was a Buddhist missionary and pen named Shigao 世高.

Between 147 and 170 AD, An Shigao translated many Buddhist texts, including Ba Da Ren Jue Jing 《八大人覺經》. The process was systematic and often involved indirect translation without the original text. A Buddhist master would either have a manuscript or recite the text from memory, leading to either direct oral translation, if the master was fluent in Chinese, or a bilingual intermediary preparing an oral draft. Assistants would then document the oral translation. This translation was then revised to create the final version. Explanations of the scriptures often became "translator notes" in the Chinese translations. This collaborative translation approach, which included numerous marginal notes, was widely practiced at Buddhist centers in Luoyang and became a standard method.

Description of Zhi Qian in 高僧傳. Book page from https://kabc.dongguk.edu/viewer/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K1074_T_001&imgId=032_0768_a

Zhi Qian支謙 was a native of Scythia but born in north China. His grandfather was naturalized during the reign of Emperor Lingdi 靈帝 in the Eastern Han dynasty. At an early age, Zhi Qian became a disciple of Zhi Liang 支亮, who in turn had studied under Zhi Chen. Between 222 and 254, he collected sutras and their translations, translated the omitted texts, and corrected the mistakes in the existing translations.

Zhi Qian’s translation of Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra 《佛説維摩詰經》. Book page from https://kabc.dongguk.edu/viewer/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K0120_T_001&imgId=009_1007_a

Zhu Fahu 竺法護, or Dharmarakṣa, was one of the most prolific translators in early Chinese Buddhism. He was a Scythian whose family had lived in Dunhuang for many years. Ordained as a monk at the age of eight, he changed his surname to Zhu 竺, and has travelled extensively throughout Central Asia where he collected manuscripts of scriptures and brought them back to China. As he was multilingual, Zhu Fahu was able to supervise a large team in translating those texts into Chinese, which included scholars of Chinese, Indian, and Central Asian origin.

According to the Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism {Buswell, 2014 #5774}, some 150 translations in over three hundred rolls are attributed to Zhu Fahu (i.e., Dharmarakṣa), including the first translation of the Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra 《妙法蓮華經》 (commonly known as the Lotus Sutra).

Kang Senghui was a monk from Sogdiana 康居 and an early translator of numerous mainstream Buddhist texts into Chinese. He emigrated in 247 to Jianye, the capital of the State of Wu.

(Description of Kang Senghui in 《高僧傳》). Book section from https://dia.dila.edu.tw/uv3/index.html?id=Tv50p0325#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=329&xywh=-297%2C823%2C2844%2C1449

Book page from https://www.taolibrary.com/category/category66/c66027.htm

Among his translations are Liu Du Ji Jing 《六度集經》(Shaiparamina-sannipata Sutra), Xiao Pin Bo Re《小品般若》(Pragnaparamita-sutra of a Small Class), etc. As a learned scholar of Buddhism who was also well versed in the Confucian classics, astronomy, and divination, Kang Senghui played a crucial role in the development of a gentry Buddhist culture in the south.

(Description of Zhu Shixing in 《高僧傳》). Book section from https://dia.dila.edu.tw/uv3/index.html?id=Tv50p0347#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=349&xywh=-335%2C990%2C3213%2C1637

Zhu Shixing 朱士行 was born in Yingchuan 潁川 during the Cao and Wei dynasties. He was ordained in Luoyang at the White Horse Temple, and because of his dissatisfaction with the translations of Buddhist sutras by his predecessors, Zhu went to Central Asia to look for the original sutras in Sanskrit. In 260, he became the first Chinese monk to set off from Chang’an, making his way to Liusha 流沙, and eventually arriving at Khotan in Turkestan, where he copied the original Sanskrit sutra of Fang Guang Bo Re 《放光般若》 (Light-emitting Wisdom Sutra) (Pañcaviṃśati-sāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra).

In 282, the manuscript was sent back to Luoyang by his disciple Fo Rutan, was finally translated into Chinese in 291.

Picture from https://www.jonathanahill.com/pages/books/9434/mok-ala-trans-zhu-shu-lan/fang-guang-bo-re-bo-luo-mi-jing-s-pancavi-sati-sahasrika-prajnaparamita-sutra-perfection-of-wisdom

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Translation of the sutra by the Khotanese monk Mokṣala 無叉羅 and the Indian monk Zhu-shu-lan 竺叔蘭, carried out in 291 CE under the Western Jin 晉 dynasty. The translation was carried out at Shuinan Si 水南寺 temple in the vicinity of Kaifeng in today’s Henan province. It was the first major prajñā – “wisdom” sutra – translated in the Western Jin, introducing concepts such as the emptiness of nature in all things (xingkong 性空), and the “two truths” (er di 二諦) of ultimate and conventional truth, among others.

Description of Dao An in 高僧傳. Book section from https://kabc.dongguk.edu/viewer/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K1074_T_005&imgId=032_0806_a

Dao An 道安 was a pioneer Chinese Buddhist monk during the Eastern Jin dynasty, who translated Buddhist scriptures and facilitated the assimilation of Buddhism in China. His work in translation had an impact on Kumarajiva 鳩摩羅什. He was a native of Fuliu in present-day Hebei province but settled in Xiangyang. After the fall of Xiangyang, Former Qin ruler Fu Jian 苻堅 invited Dao An to the capital of Chang An, where Dao An later urged Fu Jian to invite the eminent Central Asian monk Kumarajiva to China.

[Additional text: Dao An’s surname was originally Wei 衛, but starting with him, many monks and nuns had the custom of abandoning their secular surnames for the surname Shi 釋 – a transcription of the Buddha’s clan name Śākya (in Śākyamuni 釋迦牟尼).]

Chu San Zang Ji Ji 《出三藏記集》. Book page from: https://kabc.dongguk.edu/viewer/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K1053_T_002&imgId=031_0290_c

In the history of Buddhist translation, the first serious discussion on literal versus free translation began with Dao An. He believed that free translation was too subjective for Buddhist literature, as non-Buddhist concepts (e.g., Daoist terms such as wu wei 無為and zhen ren 真人) were used to translate Buddhist ideas (e.g., Nirvana 涅槃 and Arhat 阿羅漢) failing to convey the original meaning. A better way of translation, according to him, was to transliterate them and render the sutras as literally as possible.

Picture from https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/the-travel-records-of-chinese-pilgrims-faxian-xuanzang-and-yijing-sources-for-cross-cultural-encounters-between-ancient-china-and-ancient-india/

Records of Fa Xian in 《高僧傳》. Book page from https://kabc.dongguk.edu/viewer/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K1074_T_005&imgId=032_0806_a

Fa Xian 法顯 was a Buddhist monk who travelled to India and returned to China with a large volume of Buddhist scriptures. He subsequently translated these Sanskrit Buddhist texts into Chinese.

Faxian’s Itinerary.

Map illustration by Willa Davis using Cartesia Map Art for the base map of Asia.

https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/the-travel-records-of-chinese-pilgrims-faxian-xuanzang-and-yijing-sources-for-cross-cultural-encounters-between-ancient-china-and-ancient-india/

Fa Xian’s route, from Beal's edition:

Beal, Samuel, ed. (1884), "Travels of Fa-hian or Fo-kwŏ-ki, Buddhist-Country-Records", Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World by Hiuen Tsiang, Trübner's Oriental Series, vol. I, London: Trübner & Co., pp. xxiii–lxxiii.

Picture from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faxian#CITEREFBeal1884

He left a detailed record of his journey through numerous kingdoms in Central Asia, his arduous path through the Himalayas, and various pilgrimage sites in central India. In India, he stayed for a long time, conversing with Buddhist scholars, studying Sanskrit texts, and transcribing various sutras and vinayas. When he had deepened his knowledge of Buddhism and was in possession of sacred texts that were not yet translated into Chinese, he decided to go back to China, first sailing to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), which was at that time one of the most flourishing centres of Buddhist studies. When he left Sri Lanka by the southern sea route, a typhoon damaged his ship and forced him to stay on the island of Java for five months. He finally returned to China in 413.

Faxian brought back with him the new texts he had collected overseas and spent the rest of his life translating them into Chinese.

Left: Picture from https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-hk/%E6%B3%95%E6%98%BE%E4%BC%A0

Right: Picture cropped from https://sucai.redocn.com/yishuwenhua_6106906.html#%E4%BD%9B%E5%9B%BD%E8%AE%B0

Fa Xian’s pilgrimage to India initiated Sino-Indian relations, and his writings give valuable information on early Buddhism. The historical importance of this, on the one hand, has to do with a famous record of his journeys: Fa Xian Zhuan《法顯傳》, commonly known as Fo Guo Ji 《佛國記》 (Record of Buddhist Kingdoms). This contains important and detailed information that is not found elsewhere with respect to the history of South Asian Buddhism during the early centuries. On the other hand, Chinese Buddhism was strengthened because of his work in providing a better understanding of the sacred texts that he brought back. He spent the rest of his life translating these texts into Chinese.

Fa Xian’s translation of the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra. Book page from https://kabc.dongguk.edu/viewer/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K0106_T_001&imgId=009_0361_b

Fa Xian’s translation of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya. Book page from https://kabc.dongguk.edu/viewer/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K0889_T_001&imgId=021_0001_a

Among the texts brought back by Fa Xian, two of the most important were the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra 《大般涅槃經》 (Nirvana Sutra) and the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya 《摩訶僧祇律》 (monastic rule).

A painting of Kumārajīva at White Horse Pagoda, Dunhuang. Picture cropped from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva

Description of Kumarajiva in 高僧傳. Book page from https://kabc.dongguk.edu/viewer/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K1074_T_002&imgId=032_0775_b

Kumarajiva was a Buddhist scholar recognized as one of the greatest translators of Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit into Chinese. He was born in the Central Asian petty kingdom of Kucha 龜茲, which is located in present-day Aksu Prefecture 阿克蘇地區 in Xinjiang 新疆). In Chang’an 長安, a translation bureau was established under Kumarajiva’s direction where some of the most enduring Chinese translations of Buddhist texts were produced. The sheer number and variety of the translations by Kumarajiva and his team were virtually unmatched until Xuan Zang 玄奘.

Kumarajiva’s translation of Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra 《小品般若波羅蜜經》. Book page from https://kabc.dongguk.edu/viewer/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K0007_T_004&imgId=005_0781_c

In the history of Buddhist translation, the first serious discussion on literal versus free translation began with Dao An. He believed that free translation was too subjective for Buddhist literature, as non-Buddhist concepts (e.g., Daoist terms such as wu wei 無為and zhen ren 真人) were used to translate Buddhist ideas (e.g., Nirvana 涅槃 and Arhat 阿羅漢) failing to convey the original meaning. A better way of translation, according to him, was to transliterate them and render the sutras as literally as possible.

Kumarajiva’s translation of Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra, 《妙法蓮華經》 (Lotus Sutra). Book page from https://kabc.dongguk.edu/viewer/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K0116_T_001&imgId=009_0725_a

Section of the Diamond Sutra, a handwritten copy by Zhang Jizhi, based on Kumarajiva's translation from Sanskrit to Chinese. Picture from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva

Kumarajiva translated some 74 texts in 384 rolls, including such sutras as Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra 《妙法蓮華經》 (Lotus Sutra), Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra 《金剛般若波羅蜜經》 (Diamond Sutra), Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra 《小品般若波羅蜜經》 (Perfection of Wisdom Sutra), Mūlamadhyamakakārikā 《中論》 (Middle Treatise), etc.

Kumarajiva’s translation style was known for its clarity and for overcoming the previous way of translation named geyi 格義 (concept-matching), which matched Buddhist terminology with Daoist and Confucian terms. While avoiding the use of non-Buddhist terms (such as wu wei for translating nirvāṇa), the translations were still very readable and smooth, prioritizing meaning transfer rather than precise literal rendering. Therefore, the texts produced by Kumarajiva have often remained more popular than the later, more literal translations by scholars such as Xuanzang 玄奘.

In addition, his translations introduced many terminologies that are commonly used in Chinese Buddhism, e.g., 大乘 (Mahāyāna), 念處 (smṛtyupasthāna), 菩提 (Bodhi), etc.

(See also 'Dao An')

Description of Yan Zong in 高僧傳. Book page from https://kabc.dongguk.edu/viewer/view?dataId=ABC_IT_K1075_T_002&imgId=032_0924_c

Yan Zong 彥琮 had profound knowledge of Indian languages and had translated twenty-three volumes (in 100 juan) of Buddhist scriptures in his lifetime. He was invited by Emperor Wendi of Sui to oversee the translation of scriptures.

Picture from https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh/%E7%8E%84%E5%A5%98

Xuanzang 玄奘 was a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, and translator during the Tang dynasty. He was one of the two most influential and prolific translators of Indian Buddhist texts into Chinese, along with Kumarajiva, and was also known for his 17-year journey to India to obtain sacred texts and learn about Buddhism directly from its source.

Map from The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt46n41q.14

Picture from https://www-1.gsb.columbia.edu/special/travel_records.pdf

Da Tang Xi Yu Ji 《大唐西域記》 (Journey to the West). Picture from https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-hk/%E5%A4%A7%E5%94%90%E8%A5%BF%E5%9F%9F%E8%A8%98

When studying earlier translations of Buddhist sutras under various teachers, Xuanzang came to doubt the accuracy of those translations and the veracity of their teachings. To resolve his doubts, he embarked on an epic journey to India in 627, which was well known thanks to his travel record entitled Da Tang Xi Yu Ji 《大唐西域記》 (Records of the Western Countries) as well as the famous Ming-dynasty novel based on his travels, Xi You Ji 《西游記》 (Journey to the West). He brought back 657 works of Buddhism and was given the Hongfu Monastery to carry out his translation works. A total of seventy-five scriptures, running to 1,335 juan, were translated into Chinese. Xuanzang's translations of Buddhist scriptures significantly influenced the spread of Buddhism in China.